Marathi Language: The Voice of Maharashtra’s Millennium-Old Literary Heritage
Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 83 million people, stands as one of India’s major linguistic and cultural treasures. Primarily spoken in the state of Maharashtra and surrounding regions, Marathi has evolved over more than twelve centuries from its Prakrit roots into a vibrant modern language. As the official language of Maharashtra and co-official language of Goa, Marathi serves not only as a medium of daily communication but also as the bearer of a distinguished literary tradition that includes devotional poetry, philosophical texts, and dramatic works. The language has been shaped by royal patronage, religious movements, and centuries of cultural exchange, making it an essential key to understanding the history and culture of western and central India.
Origins and Classification
Linguistic Family
Marathi belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family. More specifically, it is classified within the Southern Indo-Aryan subgroup, which distinguishes it from the languages of northern India. This classification reflects both its geographical position in the Deccan region and its unique linguistic features that have developed through centuries of contact with Dravidian languages to the south, particularly Kannada and Telugu.
Origins
Marathi emerged around the 8th century CE, evolving from Maharashtri Prakrit, one of the prominent Middle Indo-Aryan languages. Maharashtri Prakrit itself was widely used in ancient India for literary purposes and was considered the most prestigious form of Prakrit. The transition from Maharashtri Prakrit to early Marathi occurred gradually over several centuries, with the earliest forms of recognizable Marathi appearing in inscriptions and literary works from the 8th and 9th centuries CE.
The language developed in the region historically known as Maharashtra, which encompassed much of the western Deccan plateau. This geographical setting proved significant, as Marathi absorbed influences from both the Indo-Aryan languages of the north and the Dravidian languages of the south, creating a unique linguistic profile that sets it apart from other Indo-Aryan languages.
Name Etymology
The term “Marathi” derives from the word “Maharashtra,” which itself comes from “Maharashtri,” the name of the Prakrit language from which Marathi evolved. The etymology of “Maharashtra” has been debated by scholars, with various theories suggesting connections to ancient tribal names or geographical features. One prominent theory links it to the “Rashtrika” people mentioned in ancient texts, with “Maha” (great) being added as an honorific prefix. The language thus carries in its very name the connection to its geographical homeland and its Prakrit predecessor.
Historical Development
Old Marathi Period (800-1350 CE)
The Old Marathi period represents the formative phase of the language, during which it distinguished itself from its Prakrit parent while establishing its unique identity. The earliest examples of Marathi appear in inscriptions dating from this period, including copper plates and stone inscriptions from various dynasties ruling the Deccan region. These inscriptions show a language in transition, with features of both Prakrit and emerging Marathi characteristics.
This period witnessed the rise of Marathi literature under the patronage of the Yadava dynasty (1187-1317 CE), which ruled from Devagiri (modern Daulatabad). The court of the Yadavas became a center for Marathi literary activity, producing some of the earliest and most significant works in the language. The most notable among these is the Dnyaneshwari, composed by the saint-poet Dnyaneshwar around 1290 CE. This monumental commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Marathi verse made philosophical and spiritual knowledge accessible to common people in their native language for the first time.
Another significant work from this period is the Lilacharitra, a hagiography of the saint Chakradhar written by Mahimbhatta around 1278 CE. These early literary works established conventions and standards that would influence Marathi literature for centuries to come.
Middle Marathi Period (1350-1800 CE)
The Middle Marathi period saw the language mature and flourish under various dynasties, including the Bahmani Sultanate, the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, and eventually the Maratha Empire. This era witnessed the greatest flowering of devotional Marathi literature through the Bhakti movement, which emphasized personal devotion to God and used vernacular languages rather than Sanskrit to reach common people.
Saints and poets like Namdev, Eknath, and Tukaram produced an extraordinary body of devotional poetry and philosophical works in Marathi during this period. Eknath (1533-1599) wrote the Eknathi Bhagwat, a Marathi commentary on the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana, and his works helped standardize Marathi literary conventions. Tukaram (1608-1650), one of the greatest Marathi poets, composed thousands of abhangas (devotional poems) that remain widely sung and recited today.
The rise of the Maratha Empire under Shivaji in the 17th century marked a crucial turning point for Marathi. Shivaji consciously promoted Marathi as the administrative language of his kingdom, replacing Persian which had been used by previous Muslim rulers. This political patronage elevated Marathi’s status and encouraged its use in official documents, correspondence, and record-keeping.
During this period, Marathi also absorbed significant vocabulary from Persian and Arabic due to centuries of contact with Muslim rulers, enriching its lexicon while maintaining its Indo-Aryan grammatical structure. The Maratha Empire’s use of Marathi in administration and correspondence helped standardize certain aspects of the language and spread its use across a wider geographical area.
Modern Marathi Period (1800 CE-Present)
The Modern Marathi period began with the advent of British colonial rule and the introduction of printing technology, Western education, and new literary forms. The British administration’s establishment of schools and colleges using Marathi as a medium of instruction led to increased standardization of grammar, spelling, and vocabulary.
This period saw the emergence of modern Marathi prose, journalism, and new literary genres including the novel, short story, and modern drama. The 19th and early 20th centuries produced major writers who helped shape modern Marathi literature, including poets, novelists, and social reformers who used the language to advocate for social change.
The language reform movement during this period debated various aspects of Marathi, including the appropriate script, the extent of Sanskrit vocabulary to be incorporated, and grammatical standardization. These discussions ultimately contributed to the development of modern standard Marathi as it is used today.
After India’s independence in 1947, Marathi was recognized as one of the scheduled languages of India and was designated as the official language of Maharashtra when the state was formed in 1960 on linguistic lines. This official status has ensured government support for the language’s development, education, and cultural promotion.
Scripts and Writing Systems
Devanagari Script
Marathi is primarily written in the Devanagari script, an alphasyllabary (abugida) that is also used for Hindi, Sanskrit, and several other Indian languages. The use of Devanagari for Marathi became established from around the 12th century CE and has remained the standard script ever since. Devanagari is written from left to right and is characterized by a horizontal line running along the top of characters.
The Marathi variant of Devanagari includes all the standard characters used for Sanskrit and Hindi but also employs certain conventions specific to Marathi phonology. For instance, Marathi preserves three different sibilants (श, ष, स) that have merged in Hindi, and it uses distinctive conjunct characters for certain letter combinations that are common in Marathi words.
Modi Script
From the 17th century until the mid-20th century, Marathi was also written in Modi script, a cursive script that was used primarily for administrative and business purposes. Modi was developed for faster writing and was extensively used during the Maratha Empire for official correspondence, revenue records, and commercial transactions. The script’s name “Modi” possibly derives from the Marathi word “modane” meaning “to bend” or “to break,” referring to its cursive nature.
Modi script was particularly popular because it could be written more quickly than Devanagari and was well-suited to the documentary needs of administration and commerce. However, with the spread of printing technology, which favored Devanagari, and changes in administrative practices under British rule, Modi gradually fell out of use. By the mid-20th century, Devanagari had almost entirely replaced Modi, though efforts have been made in recent years to preserve knowledge of the script as part of Maharashtra’s cultural heritage.
Balbodh
Balbodh is a particular style of writing Devanagari used for Marathi, distinct from the style used for Sanskrit. The term “Balbodh” means “understood by children” and reflects the script’s association with vernacular Marathi as opposed to classical Sanskrit. Balbodh became the standard form of Devanagari used in Marathi printing from the 19th century onward. It features certain stylistic differences from Sanskrit Devanagari, particularly in the rendering of certain conjunct characters and in spacing conventions.
Script Evolution
The evolution of Marathi scripts reflects broader patterns in Indian writing systems. The transition from stone inscriptions through manuscript traditions to printing technology influenced how the language was written. Early Marathi inscriptions show characteristics of the Brahmi-derived scripts used across medieval India. As Marathi literature developed, scribal traditions established conventions for writing the language in various contexts—religious manuscripts often used ornate styles while administrative documents favored faster cursive forms.
The introduction of printing in the 19th century led to standardization of letterforms and spelling conventions. Early Marathi books printed by missionary presses and later by Indian publishers helped establish Balbodh Devanagari as the standard printed form of Marathi. The 20th century saw further standardization through education systems and government policy, leading to the relatively uniform written Marathi used today.
Geographic Distribution
Historical Spread
Historically, Marathi has been primarily associated with the Maharashtra region, which encompasses the modern state of Maharashtra and parts of neighboring states. The language’s geographical spread has roughly corresponded to the political influence of Marathi-speaking dynasties and empires. During the medieval period, Marathi was spoken across much of the Deccan plateau, including areas that now form parts of Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat.
The Maratha Empire’s expansion in the 17th and 18th centuries spread Marathi influence across large parts of India, from Tamil Nadu in the south to Punjab in the north. While Marathi did not permanently displace local languages in these regions, this period of Maratha dominance left lasting influences on many Indian languages and spread awareness of Marathi culture and literature.
Centers of Learning
Several cities and towns emerged as important centers for Marathi language and literature over the centuries. Pune, which served as the de facto capital of the Maratha Empire under the Peshwas, became a major center of Marathi learning, attracting scholars, poets, and administrators who used and promoted the language. The city’s numerous educational institutions and its role as a political center made it crucial to the development of modern Marathi.
Other important centers included Paithan, associated with several Marathi saints; Satara, another Maratha capital; and in modern times, Mumbai (Bombay), which became a hub for Marathi journalism, theater, and publishing from the 19th century onward. These urban centers hosted literary gatherings, supported publishing ventures, and provided employment for writers and scholars, thus fostering the language’s development.
Modern Distribution
Today, Marathi is spoken primarily in Maharashtra, where it is the mother tongue of the majority population. Significant Marathi-speaking populations also exist in neighboring states: in Goa, where it is co-official and spoken by about a third of the population; in Karnataka’s border districts; in southern Madhya Pradesh; and in southern Gujarat. Smaller Marathi-speaking communities are found across India wherever Maharashtrians have migrated, particularly in major metropolitan areas.
The language has also spread internationally through migration. Significant Marathi-speaking diaspora communities exist in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Israel, Mauritius, and the Persian Gulf countries. These diaspora communities maintain cultural and linguistic connections with Maharashtra and contribute to Marathi literature, media, and cultural production.
Within Maharashtra itself, Marathi exists in various regional dialects, including Konkani (which some linguists consider a separate language), Varhadii, Khandeshi, and others. These dialects reflect geographical variations and historical influences from neighboring languages, yet speakers generally have little difficulty understanding standard Marathi.
Literary Heritage
Classical Literature
The classical period of Marathi literature, spanning roughly from the 13th to the 17th centuries, produced works that remain foundational to Marathi cultural identity. The Dnyaneshwari by Sant Dnyaneshwar stands as the crown jewel of this period. Written around 1290 CE in the ovi meter (a distinctive Marathi verse form), this 9,000-verse commentary on the Bhagavad Gita is considered a philosophical masterpiece that successfully bridges Sanskrit learning and vernacular accessibility.
Other significant classical works include devotional compositions by Namdev, philosophical poetry by Eknath, and the vast corpus of abhangas by Tukaram. These works established Marathi as a literary language capable of expressing complex philosophical and theological concepts while remaining accessible to ordinary people. The saints who composed these works often came from non-Brahmin castes, and their use of Marathi rather than Sanskrit represented a democratization of spiritual and philosophical discourse.
Religious Texts
Religious literature forms the backbone of Marathi’s literary tradition. Beyond the Dnyaneshwari, major religious texts in Marathi include Eknath’s Bhagwat (Eknathi Bhagwat), a Marathi rendering of the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana, and the Haripatha, a collection of devotional songs compiled by Dnyaneshwar. The Mahanubhava sect produced an extensive body of prose literature in Marathi, including the Lilacharitra, making Marathi one of the earliest Indian vernaculars to develop a substantial prose tradition.
The works of Varkari saints—devotees of the deity Vithoba—created a rich tradition of devotional poetry that remains central to Marathi culture. The annual pilgrimage (wari) to Pandharpur, during which these compositions are sung, keeps this literary tradition alive and active in contemporary Maharashtra. These religious texts have shaped not only Marathi literature but also Marathi ethics, philosophy, and social attitudes.
Poetry and Drama
Marathi poetry evolved through several phases, from the ovi and abhanga forms of medieval saints to the more sanskritized poetry of court poets, and eventually to modern free verse. The 17th and 18th centuries saw the development of lavani, a folk poetry form that combined entertainment with social commentary. Marathi poetry has addressed themes ranging from devotion and philosophy to social reform and political resistance.
Marathi drama emerged as a significant literary form in the 19th century with the development of Sangeet Natak (musical drama), a distinctive Marathi theatrical tradition combining drama, music, and dance. This form, which emerged in the 1880s, dealt with mythological, historical, and social themes and became extremely popular, contributing significantly to Marathi cultural life. Modern Marathi theater has continued to evolve, producing both experimental and commercial works that address contemporary social and political issues.
Scientific and Philosophical Works
Beyond devotional literature, Marathi has been used for scientific, technical, and philosophical works since medieval times. During the Peshwa period (18th century), Marathi was used for administrative manuals, medical texts, and astronomical works. The British period saw the development of modern Marathi prose suitable for academic and scientific discourse, with texts on history, science, mathematics, and philosophy being produced in Marathi.
The 19th and 20th centuries witnessed significant intellectual production in Marathi, including historical works, social commentary, and political philosophy. Reformers and intellectuals used Marathi to reach broader audiences with progressive ideas about caste, gender, education, and social organization, making the language a vehicle for social transformation.
Grammar and Phonology
Key Features
Marathi grammar shares many features with other Indo-Aryan languages while retaining distinctive characteristics. The language has three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), two numbers (singular and plural), and a complex system of case marking that has been influenced by both its Indo-Aryan heritage and contact with Dravidian languages. Unlike Hindi and other northern Indo-Aryan languages, Marathi has retained the neuter gender, a feature it shares with Gujarati.
Marathi verbs are conjugated for tense, mood, aspect, person, number, and gender. The language distinguishes between inclusive and exclusive forms of “we,” a feature borrowed from Dravidian languages. This distinction allows speakers to specify whether the addressee is included in or excluded from a group being referenced.
Word order in Marathi is typically subject-object-verb (SOV), as in most South Asian languages, though variations are possible for emphasis or stylistic purposes. The language uses postpositions rather than prepositions and employs a complex system of honorifics that encode social relationships and relative status between speakers.
Sound System
Marathi phonology includes several distinctive features. The language preserves distinctions between dental and retroflex consonants, as in most Indian languages, and maintains three sibilants (श, ष, स) that have merged in Hindi and some other Indo-Aryan languages. Marathi also includes certain consonant clusters that are uncommon in northern Indo-Aryan languages.
A notable phonological feature of Marathi is the presence of schwa deletion (schwa is the neutral vowel sound represented by ‘अ’ in Devanagari), which occurs in patterns different from Hindi. This affects how words are pronounced and has implications for poetry and metrics. Marathi also exhibits certain sound changes at morpheme boundaries that affect pronunciation when words are combined or inflected.
The influence of Dravidian languages is evident in certain phonological features, including the presence of retroflex lateral approximant (ळ), which is uncommon in most Indo-Aryan languages but common in Dravidian languages. Regional dialects of Marathi show considerable phonological variation, with differences in vowel quality, consonant articulation, and prosody.
Influence and Legacy
Languages Influenced
Marathi has influenced several languages in its vicinity, particularly Konkani, which shares many lexical and grammatical features with Marathi (though whether Konkani is a dialect of Marathi or a separate language remains debated). Various regional languages and dialects in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat show Marathi influence in vocabulary and, to some extent, grammatical structures.
The political dominance of the Maratha Empire in the 17th and 18th centuries spread Marathi influence across much of India. Many Indian languages borrowed Marathi words related to administration, military terminology, and cultural concepts during this period. Marathi words entered Hindi, Urdu, Kannada, Telugu, and other languages through political and cultural contact.
Loanwords and Borrowing
Marathi’s vocabulary reflects centuries of cultural contact and linguistic exchange. The language has borrowed extensively from Sanskrit, which provides much of its learned and technical vocabulary. This Sanskrit influence increased during the 19th and 20th centuries as modern Marathi developed vocabulary for new concepts in science, technology, and administration.
Persian and Arabic loanwords entered Marathi during centuries of contact with Muslim rulers, particularly during the Bahmani, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Mughal periods. These borrowings are particularly evident in vocabulary related to administration, law, commerce, and certain cultural practices.
Portuguese words entered Marathi during the period of Portuguese rule in coastal Maharashtra and Goa, particularly vocabulary related to food, household items, and naval terms. Words like “meza” (table) and “janela” (window) remain in use in Marathi today.
English has been the source of extensive borrowing since the 19th century, with English words being adopted for modern technology, education, and administrative concepts. Contemporary Marathi, particularly as spoken in urban areas, includes numerous English loanwords, and code-switching between Marathi and English is common among educated speakers.
Marathi has also borrowed from neighboring Dravidian languages, particularly Kannada and Telugu, due to geographical proximity and historical contact. This borrowing includes not just vocabulary but also certain grammatical features and phonological characteristics that distinguish Marathi from northern Indo-Aryan languages.
Cultural Impact
Beyond linguistic influence, Marathi has had a profound cultural impact on Indian civilization. The Bhakti literature in Marathi influenced devotional movements across India, with the songs of Marathi saints being translated into other languages and inspiring similar movements elsewhere. The egalitarian ethos of the Varkari tradition, which used Marathi to challenge caste hierarchies and Sanskrit’s monopoly on religious discourse, had implications far beyond Maharashtra.
Marathi theater, journalism, and social reform movements of the 19th and 20th centuries influenced similar developments in other Indian languages. The language served as a vehicle for modernization and social change, with reformers using Marathi to advocate for women’s education, caste reform, and political rights. This tradition of using vernacular languages for social transformation influenced nationalist movements across India.
Royal and Religious Patronage
Maratha Empire
The most significant royal patronage of Marathi came from the Maratha Empire, particularly under Shivaji (1630-1680) and his successors. Shivaji consciously promoted Marathi as a symbol of regional identity and political autonomy, replacing Persian with Marathi in administration and encouraging Sanskrit scholars to coin Marathi equivalents for Persian administrative terms.
The Maratha Empire’s use of Marathi in official correspondence, revenue records, legal documents, and diplomatic communication elevated the language’s status from primarily a literary and devotional medium to a language of state power. This period saw the development of technical and administrative vocabulary in Marathi and the establishment of scribal and bureaucratic traditions that used the language.
The Peshwa period (1713-1818), when Brahmin ministers effectively ruled the Maratha Empire from Pune, saw continued patronage of Marathi learning and literature. The Peshwa courts supported scholars, maintained libraries, and commissioned works in Marathi on various subjects. This patronage helped develop Marathi prose and expand the language’s functional domains.
Religious Institutions
Religious institutions, particularly Varkari temples and monasteries, played a crucial role in preserving and promoting Marathi. The temple at Pandharpur, center of the Varkari tradition, became a focal point for Marathi devotional literature and music. Annual pilgrimages kept the songs and teachings of Marathi saints alive and relevant across generations.
Various Mathas (monastic institutions) supported Marathi scholarship and preserved manuscripts of Marathi texts. These institutions provided patronage to poets and scholars and served as centers of learning where Marathi literary traditions were taught and maintained. The Mahanubhava sect, in particular, produced an extensive body of Marathi prose literature and maintained careful manuscript traditions.
During the medieval period, both Hindu and Muslim rulers at various times supported Marathi literary production. The Bahmani and Ahmadnagar Sultanates employed Marathi in their administrations and patronized Marathi poets. This cross-religious patronage contributed to Marathi’s development as a cosmopolitan literary language.
Modern Status
Current Speakers
Marathi is currently spoken by approximately 83 million people as a first language, making it the third-most spoken native language in India after Hindi and Bengali. Including second-language speakers, the total number of Marathi speakers is significantly higher. The language serves approximately 95 million people in Maharashtra as either their first or second language.
The speaker population is concentrated primarily in Maharashtra, where Marathi is spoken by the majority of the state’s 112 million inhabitants. Significant speaker populations also exist in Goa (approximately 10 lakh speakers), Karnataka (around 13 lakh speakers in border districts), Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and other neighboring regions. The diaspora adds several hundred thousand speakers worldwide.
Official Recognition
Marathi enjoys official status at both state and national levels in India. It is recognized as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India under the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, which grants it certain rights and privileges including use in central government communications and parliament.
At the state level, Marathi is the sole official language of Maharashtra, where it is used for all governmental, educational, and judicial purposes. In Goa, Marathi shares co-official status with Konkani, which is the state’s official language. This official recognition ensures government support for Marathi education, publishing, and cultural activities.
Marathi is used as the medium of instruction in thousands of schools across Maharashtra and is taught as a subject in schools throughout the state and in regions with significant Marathi-speaking populations. The language is used in state universities, in state government administration, and in the Maharashtra Legislature.
Preservation Efforts
Various governmental and non-governmental organizations work to promote and preserve Marathi language and literature. The Maharashtra government’s Directorate of Languages supports Marathi through publishing, awards, and cultural programs. The Sahitya Akademi (India’s national academy of letters) recognizes and promotes Marathi literature through awards and publications.
Several cultural organizations work to maintain Marathi’s vitality, including the Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan (All-India Marathi Literary Conference) and numerous local cultural associations. These organizations organize literary events, publish magazines and books, and advocate for Marathi’s interests.
In recent years, concerns have been raised about the influence of English on Marathi, particularly among urban youth, and the challenges posed by Hindi in national contexts. Activists and cultural organizations have advocated for greater protection of Marathi’s status in Maharashtra, leading to policies promoting Marathi in education, commerce, and signage.
Digital technology has opened new avenues for Marathi’s preservation and growth. Marathi content is increasingly available online, including digital libraries of classical texts, news portals, social media content, and educational resources. Efforts are being made to develop Marathi language technology, including fonts, keyboards, translation tools, and speech recognition systems.
Learning and Study
Academic Study
Marathi is taught and studied at various levels in Indian educational institutions. At the school level, it is a compulsory subject in Maharashtra and is available as an optional subject in schools across India. At the university level, departments of Marathi language and literature exist in universities across Maharashtra and in several universities in other states.
Research in Marathi linguistics, literature, and cultural studies is conducted at these institutions, with scholars examining everything from medieval manuscripts to contemporary social media language use. International universities in countries with significant Indian diaspora populations, including the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia, also offer Marathi language courses and conduct research on Marathi literature and culture.
The study of Marathi includes not just the language itself but also its extensive literary tradition, its role in social and religious movements, and its contribution to Indian culture. Scholars examine Marathi’s grammatical structure, its dialects, its historical development, and its interactions with other languages.
Resources
Resources for learning Marathi include traditional textbooks, dictionaries, and grammar books, as well as modern digital resources. Several comprehensive Marathi-English dictionaries exist, including historical dictionaries that document the language’s evolution. Grammar books range from traditional Sanskrit-based analyses to modern linguistic descriptions.
Digital resources for learning Marathi have expanded significantly in recent years. Online courses, mobile apps, YouTube channels, and language learning platforms now offer Marathi instruction to learners worldwide. Digital libraries provide access to classical Marathi literature and historical texts. Social media and online forums connect Marathi learners and speakers globally.
Literary resources include the vast corpus of Marathi literature spanning over a millennium, from medieval devotional poetry to contemporary novels and short stories. Film and theater in Marathi provide additional resources for language learning and cultural understanding. Marathi newspapers, magazines, television channels, and radio stations offer current, authentic language exposure for learners.
Conclusion
Marathi stands as a testament to the enduring vitality of India’s linguistic diversity and literary traditions. From its origins in the 8th century CE to its current status as one of India’s major languages, Marathi has continuously evolved while maintaining connections to its rich heritage. The language has served as a vehicle for spiritual expression, philosophical inquiry, political power, social reform, and literary creativity. Its literature, spanning over twelve centuries, includes masterpieces of devotional poetry, philosophical commentary, and social criticism that continue to resonate with contemporary readers and listeners.
The story of Marathi reflects broader patterns in Indian cultural history—the relationship between classical and vernacular traditions, the role of language in religious and social movements, the impact of political power on linguistic development, and the challenges of maintaining linguistic identity in a globalized world. As Marathi continues to adapt to contemporary contexts while honoring its past, it remains not just a means of communication but a living repository of Maharashtra’s cultural heritage and a medium through which millions of people continue to express their identities, aspirations, and creativity.