Varanasi: The Eternal City Where Spirituality and Learning Flow Like the Ganges

On the banks of the sacred Ganges River, where the first rays of dawn illuminate ancient stone ghats and temple spires, lies Varanasi—a city that has witnessed the continuous pulse of Indian civilization for over three millennia. Known variously as Kashi (the City of Light) and Benares, this extraordinary urban center represents perhaps the most enduring example of sacred space in human history. For countless generations, Varanasi has served as India’s spiritual capital, a place where the pursuit of moksha (liberation), the study of sacred texts, and the practice of devotion have created an unbroken chain of religious and intellectual tradition. Mark Twain famously wrote that Varanasi is “older than history, older than tradition, older even than legend,” capturing the timeless quality of this city where the temporal and eternal seem to merge along the river’s edge.

Foundation and Early History

Origins (circa 1200 BCE - 500 BCE)

According to Hindu sacred tradition, Varanasi was founded by Lord Shiva himself, making it not merely an ancient city but a divine creation that predates human history. Archaeological evidence supports the city’s extraordinary antiquity, with continuous human habitation documented for over 3,000 years. The city’s original name, Kashi, derives from the Sanskrit root “kash” meaning “to shine,” reflecting its identity as the luminous center of spiritual knowledge and divine presence.

The earliest textual references to Varanasi appear in the Rigveda, one of humanity’s oldest religious texts, suggesting the city’s importance even in the Vedic period. By the time of the Upanishads (circa 800-500 BCE), Kashi had already established itself as a major center of Vedic learning, where seekers came to study under renowned teachers and debate philosophical questions about the nature of reality, consciousness, and liberation.

Founding Vision

The founding vision of Varanasi was inextricably linked to the concept of tirtha—a sacred ford or crossing place where the earthly and divine realms meet. The city’s location on the Ganges, Hinduism’s most sacred river, made it the ultimate pilgrimage destination where devotees could wash away karma, perform rituals for ancestors, and seek spiritual liberation. This vision encompassed not just religious practice but also the pursuit of knowledge, making Varanasi both a place of worship and a center of learning where the Vedas, Upanishads, and various schools of Hindu philosophy were studied, debated, and transmitted across generations.

Location and Setting

Historical Geography

Varanasi occupies a crescent-shaped stretch along the western bank of the Ganges River in what is now Uttar Pradesh, in the northern plains of India. The city’s position on the river’s northward-flowing curve held special sacred significance, as most of the Ganges flows southeast. This geographical anomaly was interpreted as a divine blessing, with the belief that bathing at this particular bend offered special spiritual benefits.

The historical region of Kashi extended beyond the city itself, encompassing a sacred zone that included nearby settlements and eventually the important Buddhist site of Sarnath, located just 10 kilometers to the northeast. The city’s location placed it at the crossroads of major trade and pilgrimage routes connecting the Gangetic plain to other regions of the subcontinent, facilitating not just commercial exchange but also the flow of ideas, scholars, and spiritual seekers.

Architecture and Layout

The defining architectural features of Varanasi are its ghats—the stepped stone embankments that line the river for several kilometers. These ghats, numbering over 80, serve as the interface between the city and the sacred river, providing spaces for bathing, religious ceremonies, cremations, and simply observing the rhythms of spiritual life. Each ghat has its own history, associations, and ritual significance.

Rising behind the ghats, the city presents a dense labyrinth of narrow lanes (galis) lined with temples, ashrams, and traditional houses. The most significant temple, the Kashi Vishwanath Temple (also known as the Golden Temple due to its gold-plated spire), is dedicated to Shiva as the lord of Kashi. Though the current structure dates to the 18th century, rebuilt after being destroyed during various conquests, a temple has stood on or near this site for millennia, marking what is considered the most sacred spot in the sacred city—the place where Shiva’s jyotirlinga (pillar of light) manifested.

Function and Activities

Primary Purpose

Varanasi’s primary function throughout history has been as a tirtha—a pilgrimage destination where Hindus come to fulfill religious obligations, seek spiritual merit, and ideally, to die and be cremated on the banks of the Ganges. The belief that dying in Kashi grants moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth) has made the city not just a place to visit but a place where devout Hindus aspire to spend their final days.

Daily Life and Ritual Practice

The daily rhythm of Varanasi is defined by religious observance. Before dawn, the ghats fill with pilgrims performing their morning ablutions in the Ganges, while priests conduct elaborate rituals. The most famous of these is the Ganga Aarti, an evening ceremony of worship offered to the river with fire, incense, and devotional songs. Throughout the day, the city resonates with the chanting of mantras, the ringing of temple bells, and the recitation of sacred texts.

The cremation grounds, particularly at Manikarnika Ghat and Harishchandra Ghat, operate continuously, with funeral pyres burning day and night. This constant reminder of mortality serves as a powerful spiritual teaching, reinforcing Hindu philosophical concepts about the impermanence of physical existence and the eternal nature of the soul.

Center of Learning

Beyond its role as a pilgrimage site, Varanasi has functioned for millennia as a center of traditional Hindu learning. Countless pathshalas (traditional schools) and ashrams have offered instruction in Sanskrit, Vedic studies, Hindu philosophy, astrology, Ayurvedic medicine, and classical music. The city attracted scholars from across India, making it a repository of knowledge where ancient texts were preserved, studied, and commented upon.

The tradition of scholarly debate and philosophical discussion was central to Varanasi’s intellectual life. Different schools of Hindu philosophy—Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, and others—had representation in the city, where teachers and students engaged in rigorous analysis of sacred texts and metaphysical questions.

Traditional Arts and Crafts

Varanasi also developed as a center for traditional arts, most notably silk weaving. The famous Banarasi silk saris, woven with intricate gold and silver brocade patterns, became renowned throughout India and beyond. The city’s musical traditions, particularly in classical North Indian music, attracted both practitioners and patrons, adding to its reputation as a complete cultural center.

Periods of Glory

Vedic and Upanishadic Era (1200 BCE - 500 BCE)

During the late Vedic period and the era of the Upanishads, Varanasi emerged as one of the intellectual capitals of ancient India. The city’s association with spiritual knowledge attracted teachers and students who developed philosophical concepts that would profoundly influence Indian civilization. The forest hermitages around Varanasi served as early universities where the guru-shishya (teacher-student) tradition flourished.

Buddhist Connection (6th Century BCE - 12th Century CE)

While Varanasi remained primarily a Hindu sacred center, its proximity to Sarnath gave it significance in Buddhist history. After attaining enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, the Buddha traveled to Sarnath, just outside Varanasi, to deliver his first sermon to his five former companions, setting in motion what Buddhists call “the wheel of dharma.” This event made the Varanasi region sacred to Buddhists as well, and for centuries Buddhist monasteries and stupas existed alongside Hindu temples.

Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, including Xuanzang in the 7th century CE, visited and wrote about Varanasi, describing a thriving city with both Hindu and Buddhist institutions. This period demonstrated Varanasi’s role as a center where different religious traditions could coexist and engage in philosophical dialogue.

Medieval Hindu Renaissance (1200 CE - 1700 CE)

Despite suffering destruction during various invasions and conquests, particularly during the medieval period, Varanasi demonstrated remarkable resilience. The city’s temples were rebuilt multiple times, and its role as a pilgrimage center continued uninterrupted. This period saw the presence of major Hindu religious reformers and philosophers who visited or taught in Varanasi, reinforcing its position as a center of Hindu orthodoxy and learning.

The city’s ability to maintain its sacred character despite political upheavals speaks to the depth of its significance in Hindu consciousness and the determination of its residents and patrons to preserve its religious functions.

Notable Figures

Ancient Scholars and Saints

Throughout its long history, Varanasi has been associated with numerous scholars, saints, and philosophers. The city’s tradition holds that many ancient rishis (sages) lived and taught in the area, though specific historical documentation is limited for the earliest periods.

Centers of Traditional Learning

The city’s countless pandits (traditional scholars) have maintained unbroken chains of knowledge transmission across centuries. These scholars, specializing in various branches of Vedic knowledge, Sanskrit grammar, Hindu law, and philosophy, have ensured that Varanasi remains a living repository of traditional Indian learning even into the modern era.

Patronage and Support

Royal Patronage Across Dynasties

Throughout history, rulers from various dynasties recognized the religious and cultural importance of Varanasi and extended patronage to its temples and institutions. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka, while primarily a Buddhist patron, is believed to have supported institutions in the region. The Gupta emperors, as champions of Hindu culture, would have recognized Varanasi’s significance. Later rulers, including various local kings and even some Mughal emperors, provided support to the city’s religious infrastructure despite periods of conflict.

Community Support

Beyond royal patronage, Varanasi’s survival and prosperity depended on the support of countless pilgrims who donated to temples and religious institutions. Wealthy merchants, particularly those involved in the silk trade, also contributed to maintaining the city’s religious and cultural infrastructure. The concept of religious giving (dana) as a spiritual practice ensured continuous financial support for the city’s religious functions.

Legacy and Influence

Historical Impact

Varanasi’s influence on Indian civilization cannot be overstated. As a center of Hindu learning and practice for over three millennia, it has served as a conservator of Vedic traditions, Sanskrit learning, and Hindu philosophical thought. The city’s continuous functioning as a sacred space has provided Indian culture with a powerful symbol of continuity and resilience.

The philosophical discussions and textual studies conducted in Varanasi contributed to the development of Hindu thought and practice. The city’s emphasis on both ritual practice and philosophical inquiry created a model for understanding Hinduism that balanced devotional worship with intellectual investigation.

Religious and Cultural Legacy

Varanasi established the template for sacred cities in Hindu tradition. Its combination of pilgrimage site, cremation ground, center of learning, and living religious community has influenced how Hindus conceptualize sacred space. The city appears throughout Hindu sacred literature, from ancient Puranas to medieval devotional poetry, cementing its place in the religious imagination.

The belief that dying in Varanasi grants liberation has profoundly influenced Hindu attitudes toward death and has made the city a destination of ultimate spiritual aspiration. This tradition continues strongly into the present, with many elderly Hindus still coming to the city to spend their final days.

Modern Recognition

In recognition of its cultural significance, Varanasi was designated a UNESCO Creative City in 2015, acknowledging its contributions to music, traditional arts, and cultural heritage. The city is a member of the League of Historical Cities, reflecting its importance in world heritage. Modern Varanasi continues to attract not just Hindu pilgrims but also scholars, tourists, and spiritual seekers from around the world, who come to experience what remains one of the world’s most authentically ancient urban spaces.

Visiting Today

Contemporary Varanasi remains a functioning sacred city where ancient traditions continue unabated despite modern development. The morning boat rides along the ghats offer visitors an unparalleled view of religious life as it has been practiced for millennia. The evening Ganga Aarti ceremonies draw thousands of observers who witness ritual practices that connect directly to ancient Vedic traditions.

The narrow lanes of the old city preserve a medieval urban fabric, though now crowded with modern life. The Kashi Vishwanath Temple, though requiring passes and security clearances, remains an active site of worship where thousands come daily for darshan (sacred viewing) of the Shiva lingam. Near Varanasi, the Buddhist site of Sarnath offers a quieter experience, with its ancient stupas, archaeological museum, and active Tibetan and Thai monasteries demonstrating the region’s continuing Buddhist connections.

Banaras Hindu University, established in 1916, represents a modern evolution of Varanasi’s educational traditions, combining traditional Sanskrit learning with modern academic disciplines. The university’s Bharat Kala Bhavan museum houses an exceptional collection of Indian art and artifacts.

For visitors, Varanasi can be overwhelming—the crowds, the intensity of religious practice, the confrontation with death at the cremation ghats, and the general sensory assault of an ancient city with minimal modern infrastructure. Yet for those who approach with respect and openness, the city offers a glimpse into living traditions that connect directly to the roots of Indian civilization.

Conclusion

Varanasi stands as perhaps the most remarkable example of cultural and religious continuity in human history. For over three thousand years, this city on the Ganges has served as India’s spiritual heart, a place where the pursuit of liberation, the study of sacred texts, and the practice of devotion have created an unbroken tradition spanning countless generations. In an age when most ancient cities exist only as archaeological ruins, Varanasi remains vibrantly alive, its ghats still crowded with pilgrims, its temples still resounding with Vedic chants, its scholars still teaching Sanskrit and philosophy in traditional pathshalas.

The city’s enduring significance lies not just in its antiquity but in its continuing vitality as a sacred space. Varanasi demonstrates that ancient traditions need not be museum pieces but can remain living practices that continue to provide meaning and spiritual guidance. For understanding Indian civilization—its philosophical depth, its religious diversity, its remarkable cultural continuity—there is perhaps no better place than the ghats of Kashi, where the eternal and temporal merge in the sacred waters of the Ganges.